The Philosophy of Intellectual Property Rights in Genetically Engineered Animals

Document Type : Original Article

Author

PhD., Department of Law, Baqir al-Olum University, Qom, Iran

10.22081/phlq.2025.71158.1096

Abstract

The aim of the research is to examine the philosophy of intellectual property rights in genetically engineered animals. By exploring the philosophical, ethical, and legal complexities of intellectual property rights over genetically engineered animals, it shows that these creatures challenge the traditional boundaries between nature and technology and require a revision of basic concepts in the fields of ontology, bioethics, and law. First, from an ontological perspective, genetically engineered animals are at the intersection of "living being" and "technological product." Duality blurs traditional concepts such as "nature" and "technology" because these creatures simultaneously benefit from evolved biological processes and purposeful human engineering design. The spectrum approach proposed here, by rejecting traditional dualism, analyzes these creatures along a continuum from nature to technology and depicts that their hybrid nature requires novel conceptual frameworks. From a bioethical perspective, the conflict between "intellectual property rights" and "animal rights" has become one of the most challenging issues. Although protecting genetic innovations through intellectual property can lead to scientific advancements and the resolution of global crises, this approach carries the risk of neglecting the intrinsic dignity of animals and turning them into "exclusive commodities." The analysis of three main ethical viewpoints—utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics—reflects that none of them merely are capable of resolving this tension. Utilitarianism, by focusing on maximizing public benefit for the maximum number, may disregard animal suffering; deontology, by emphasizing inherent rights, hinders technological progress; and virtue ethics calls for a balance between scientific progress and ethical responsibility. These oppositions reveal the necessity of creating mitigating mechanisms, such as ethical conditionality in patent registration. In the field of the philosophy relating to technology, genetic engineering has granted humans unprecedented power in rewriting the codes of life. While this power strengthens hopes such as treating genetic diseases and ensuring food security, it also increases the risk of turning animals into "biological tools" dominated by commercial interests. Intellectual property in this area not only does grant exclusive control over production and distribution but also gives companies the right to determine the fate of future generations of these creatures. Finally, the phenomenological and post-humanist approach of the present research analyzes genetically engineered animals not as "tools" or "property" but as "others" in the complex web of life. This perspective challenges traditional anthropocentrism and calls for defining intellectual property within a multi-species framework that recognizes the inherent rights of animals and ecological obligations.

Keywords

References

Anderson, J., Smith, R. & Taylor, L. (2020). Ethical challenges in genetic engineering. Journal of Bioethics, 15(3), p. 45-67.
Aristotle. (2009). Nicomachean ethics. Trans. W.D. Ross. Oxford University Press.
Baker, S. & Thompson, P. (2019). Ethical considerations in animal biotechnology. Bioethics Review, 14(2), p. 76-89.
Benkler, Y. (2006). The wealth of networks: How social production transforms markets and freedom. Yale University Press.
Birch, J. (2020). Animal sentience and the precautionary principle. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 48(3), p. 223-251.
Bovenkerk, B. & Keulartz, J. (2016). Ethical considerations in animal biotechnology. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 29(5), p. 45-67.
Braidotti, R. (2013). The posthuman. Polity Press.
Brown, C. & Davis, L. (2019). Ethics of genetic modification in animals. Bioethics Review, 15(2), p. 55-72.
Burk, D.L. (2013). Patenting transgenic animals. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 26(1), p. 78-89.
Clark, A. (2018). The ethics of genetic engineering: A philosophical perspective. Philosophy and Technology, 31(4), p. 89-102.
Derrida, J. (2002). The animal that therefore I am. Fordham University Press.
Esvelt, K., Smidler, A., Catteruccia, F. & Church, G. (2014). Gene drives and the future of genetic engineering. Science, 345(6197), p. 626-628.
Ferrando, F. (2019). Philosophical posthumanism: Reframing the human condition. Philosophy and Technology, 32(1), p. 31-47.
Haraway, D. (1991). Simians, cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature. Routledge.
Haraway, D. (2008). When species meet. University of Minnesota Press.
Haraway, D. (2016). Staying with the trouble: Making kin in the Chthulucene. Duke University Press.
Harris, M. & Green, R. (2019). Intellectual property in bioengineering. Journal of Bioethics, 12(4), p. 45-68.
Ho, C.M. (2011). Access to essential medicines: The role of compulsory licensing. International Journal of Law and Medicine, 29(2), p. 75-89.
Hursthouse, R. (1999). On virtue ethics. Oxford University Press.
Husserl, E. (2012). Cartesian meditations: An introduction to phenomenology. Trans. D. Cairns, Tr. Springer.
Ihde, D. (1990). Technology and the lifeworld: From garden to earth. Indiana University Press.
Johnson, M. (2018). The ethics of animal biotechnology. Bioethics Review, 13(1), p. 34-45.
Jones, M. (2019). The ethics of genetic engineering. Journal of Philosophy and Technology, 22(1), p.12-34.
Kant, I. (2017). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals. Trans. M. Gregor & J. Timmermann. Cambridge University Press.
Kauffman, C.M. & Martin, P.L. (2021). The rights of nature in international law. Environmental Policy Review, 18(1), p. 67-92.
Kirksey, E. & Helmreich, S. (2010). The emergence of multispecies ethnography. Cultural Anthropology, 25(4), p. 545-576.
Kloppenburg, J. (2004). First the seed: The political economy of plant biotechnology. University of Wisconsin Press.
Ledford, H. (2015). CRISPR, the disruptor. Nature, 522(7554), p. 20-24.
Lee, R. (2016). Biotech patents and ethical boundaries. Journal of Law and Ethics in Biotechnology, 23(3), p.155-172.
MacIntyre, A. (2007). After virtue: A study in moral theory. 3rd ed. University of Notre Dame Press.
Murray, F. (2010). The oncomouse that roared: Patents and invention in the life sciences. Harvard Business School Press.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Gene drives on the horizon: Advancing science, navigating uncertainty, and aligning research with public values. The National Academies Press.
Peterson, A. (2018). The philosophy of biotechnology. Philosophy and Technology, 31(2),
p. 89-102.
Rai, A.K. & Boyle, J. (2007). Synthetic biology: Caught between property rights, the public domain, and the commons. PLoS Biology, 5(3).
Regan, T. (2004). The case for animal rights. 2nd ed. University of California Press.
Resnik, D.B. (2003). Patents and the future of scientific research. Ethics & Behavior, 13(4),
p. 317-332.
Rodriguez, P. (2017). Intellectual property and genetic engineering: Ethical implications. Cambridge University Press.
Shiva, V. (2016). The violence of the green revolution: Third world agriculture, ecology, and politics. University Press of Kentucky.
Singer, P. (2019). Practical ethics. 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press.
Smith, J. (2020). The ethics of animal biotechnology. Bioethics Review, 15(1), p. 23-45.
Sunstein, C.R. (2005). Laws of fear: Beyond the precautionary principle. Harvard University Press.
Supreme Court of the United States (2013). Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., 569 U.S. 576.
Taylor, P.J. (2017). The ethics of genetic engineering. Journal of Bioethics, 12(3), p. 23-45.
Taylor, P.J. (2018). Nature and technology: Philosophical perspectives on biotechnology. Routledge.
Under, K. (2006). Intellectual property as a public trust: Rethinking ownership in the biotechnology era. Oxford University Press.
Van Eenennaam, A.L. (2017). Genetic modification of food animals. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, no. 44, p. 27-34.
Warwick, K. (2011). Cybernetics and society: The rise of artificial intelligence and bio-hybrid systems. Routledge.
Wilson, G.J. (2021). Bioethics and intellectual property in genetic engineering. Science and Law Review, 28(2), p. 87-103.
Wise, S.M. (2000). Rattling the cage: Toward legal rights for animals. Perseus Books.
 
Journal of Philosophy of Law
Volume 3, Issue 2
October 2024
Pages 123-148

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 18 February 2025
  • Revise Date: 04 April 2025
  • Accept Date: 23 February 2025

Share

How to cite

Statistics